Labor Daze

In honor of the last holiday weekend of the summer, today's Graphical History Tour celebrates Labor Day, 1925.

"His Day" by Ed LeCocq in Des Moines Register, Sept. 7, 1925

The holiday fell on September 7 that year, so most of today's cartoons were published on that date. We start with this cartoon by the young man filling in for Jay Norwood Darling during Ding's illness. Old Man Work here graciously permits Organized Labor to join The Public on their way to some picnic grounds.

"Labor Day" by John T. McCutcheon in Chicago Tribune, Sept. 7, 1925

John McCutcheon's Uncle Sam wishes American Labor a sixteen hour day of rest and recreation.

Come those other eight hours, I presume, American Labor was expected to get right back to work.

These first two cartoons do point out that Labor Day was finally a chance for Dad to get out and enjoy some time with his family. Paid vacation was not a thing for most workers a century ago; the "family summer vacation" typically was just for Mom and the kids. Dad stayed behind to keep punching the clock at work every day.

"The Spirit of Confidence" by Dean O'Dell in Dayton Daily News, Sept. 7, 1925

Dean O'Dell's Uncle Sam and American Labor engage in some discreet petting while the heady fumes of prosperity and peace waft from picturesque smokestacks.

"The Giant of Progress" by Tom Foley in Minneapolis Star, Sept. 7, 1925

I'm wondering at what point Tom Foley or his editorial page editor decided that his cartoon needed to be printed as a mirror image of the original drawing. Foley did not customarily sign his cartoons backward; the "LABOR" stone looks to me like something scratched onto the cartoon at the last minute.

"Rare Consistency" by John M. Baer for Labor, ca. Sept. 4, 1925

John Baer has appeared before in these Graphical History Tours in his connection to the Nonpartisan League movement of the 1910's, which had sent him to Congress from North Dakota from 1917 to 1921. After his defeat for reelection in 1920, he literally returned to the drawing board, cartooning for Labor, the newspaper of the National Railroad Union.

In "Rare Consistency" (a title possibly added by the editors of Oklahoma Leader, who routinely pasted text onto the cartoons they printed), Baer highlights the hypocrisy of industrial associations and trusts warning farmers, laborers, and soldiers against collectively organizing. 

"Well, Here's Hoping" by Bill Hanny in Philadelphia Inquirer, Aug. 31, 1925

As Labor Day approached, the threat of a strike by anthracite coal miners loomed. Most homes and businesses were heated by coal in those days, so an interruption of the coal supply in the fall and winter was liable to have serious consequences for much of the country.

"Modest Demands" by O. "Zim" Zimmerman for Daily Worker, Chicago, Sept. 9, 1925

Drawing for the communist Daily Worker, Zimmerman laid out the United Mine Workers' demands: a nationwide contract with higher wages for fewer hours, and unemployment pay to come out of corporate profits. 

"It Does Look Like It" by Winsor McCay for Star Company, ca. Sept. 1, 1925

By Labor Day, negotiations between the UMW, led by John Lewis, and management, headed by operators' scale negotiating committee chair W.W. Inglis, had been dragging on for weeks, with no apparent progress to report.

"Hard Hard-Boiled" by Harry Westerman in Ohio State Journal, ca. Sept. 1, 1925

Harry Westerman's Uncle Sam displays a sterner attitude toward hard coal miners (and their mine operators) than Dean O'Dell's did toward American Labor in general. 

"We're With You" by Bill Sykes in Philadelphia Public Ledger, ca Sep. 5, 1925

Most editorial cartoonists placed blame for the possible strike on both labor and management; I'm sure nearly everybody was aware of what a dirty and dangerous job coal mining was and is. Bill Sykes's cartoon , however, comes as close as any I've seen to blaming the union workers.

It is difficult to read the animals' labels in Sykes's cartoon: the bird is labeled "Waste," and the wolf is labeled "Want."

"The Man Who Used to March on Labor Day" by Daniel Fitzpatrick in St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Sept. 7, 1925

Returning to the holiday, Daniel Fitzpatrick's Labor Day cartoon raises more questions than it answers. Is the man who used to march on Labor Day driving alone or in a parade? Is he a really big guy, or is he driving the first subcompact vehicle?

"No One Has a Good Word to Say for Work" by Manuel Rosenberg in Cincinnati Post, Sept. 7, 1925

And finally, Manuel Rosenberg leaves us with some deep thoughts about justification through work.

I hope you are able to enjoy an escape from work this weekend, yet, where applicable, still have a good word to say about getting back to the job on Tuesday.

Q Toon: Catching Up

It is finally time to extricate Leo the Liberal from Trumplinka Concentration Camp and extrajudicial expulsion to Shitholistan, so I've decided that his partner, MAGA Max, finally checked his phone messages and discovered that Leo was waiting for him at the Ottawa airport.

How they will explain returning to the United States without any luggage I leave to your own imagination.

Having recently traveled by car through southern Ontario, I can report that passing into Canada at Niagara Falls was a breeze, whereas coming back into the U.S. at Port Huron entailed a twenty-minute traffic jam at customs. The questioning at either border was friendly and non-problematic; we did see one car directed aside for further examination, but of course, we have no idea why.

But while a real human being who was returned from unjust banishment to a Salvadorian concentration camp is now being threatened with expulsion to Uganda, I'm going to let Leo fall between the cracks of Trump's lawless deportation purges. Probably.

The stumbling block I had to surmount for this cartoon (besides the Canadian flight attendants union strike) was Max's dialogue in the second and third panels. It doesn't quite sound like something a MAGAzoid would say.

But for the past several months, Trumpian fascism has affected Max directly. Now that it no longer does, Max, like the rest of the MAGA flock who used to see threats to democracy and the Constitution everywhere, will go back to blind Trump l'oeilty.

In 2020, Trump's blustering, blundering response to the COVID-19 pandemic was something that affected all of us directly, and helped convince a majority of the U.S. electorate that he had to go. 

Four years later, few of us were still directly affected by COVID-19; the pandemic seemed manageable. So a majority of the U.S. electorate decided, hey, what the heck, better to elect a manifestly corrupt, lying, self-absorbed, dim-witted, venal, seditious convicted felon who nearly got us all killed, than that Black woman.

This Week's Sneak Peek

While drawing my cartoon last night, I decided to catch up on some of the late night talk shows that I had missed while My Better Half and I were on vacation earlier this month.

When I called up On Demand list for The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on our Spectrum cable TV service, I discovered that the most recent episode was June 9. That was one of the the last Late Shows before Colbert went on a vacation, came back with a mustache, and got canceled by Paramount-CBS as a favor to the Despotic Trump Regime. None of the July and August episodes were available.

I'm not sure what Spectrum is up to; the other episodes available are not the immediately previous ones, as has usually been the case with The Late Show and every other program.

Is this a new Spectrum policy? Artificial Intelligence imagining what episodes I might prefer? Are the rest of his shows available only by subscription to Paramount-Plus? Or is CBS censoring Colbert now that they've cancelled his show?

Have we always been at war with Eastasia?

Ding Ding Ding: Late Breaking Correction

"The Comeback" by Ed LeCocq for Des Moines Register, ca. April 26, 1925

In a recent Graphical History Tour of editorial cartoons eulogizing Fighting Bob LaFollette, I had wondered why I couldn't find an example by the Des Moines Register's Jay Norwood "Ding" Darling, a frequent LaFollette critic. Nor could I find a cartoon by him during the Scopes Monkey Trial and the subsequent passing of William Jennings Bryan. Instead, the Register had been running cartoons by Edward C. LeCocq.

I can now report that Darling was laid low for several months in 1925 with peritonitis, according to updates on the Register front page in March and April.

The University of Iowa library identifies the above LeCocq cartoon as having appeared in the Register on Sunday, April 26, 1925, which is the date on the clipping from a Tribune somewhere. I'm not finding it in the Register on that date or any other that month.

Darling's last cartoon before taking sick appeared on March 23, 1925. For a few weeks thereafter, the Register had no editorial cartoon on its front page; its March 24 front page included a boxed notice that "Due to the illness of Jay N. Darling (Ding), the cartoons will be omitted temporarily from the first page of The Register."

After a few weeks, the Register front page sported a few syndicated cartoons by Winsor McCay and Rollin Kirby. It ran the first of LeCocq's cartoons on April 19; he was soon drawing daily editorial cartoons for the front page for the rest of the year.

"If You Don't Think the World Moves, Just Try Stopping for a Year" by J.N. "Ding" Darling in Des Moines Register, April 5, 1926

Darling finally returned to the Register's front page on April 5, 1926, along with his editor's report that

Jay N. Darling, "Ding," returns to the Register's front page this morning with the first cartoon he has drawn after more than a year's absence. Mr. Darling has completely recovered his health, following the serious illness with peritonitis with which he was stricken March 19, 1925. Ed LeCocq, the young cartoonist who substituted for Mr. Darling, will draw cartoons for the Evening Tribune.

(Side note: the Des Moines Evening Tribune-News would not have been the source of the cartoon at the top of this post; it did not publish on Sundays.)

Bereaved, Bothered, and Bewildered

This week’s Graphical History Tour sets the calendar back 100 Augusts ago to find two political parties in mourning.

"Leaderless" by Fred Morgan in Philadelphia Inquirer, Aug. 2, 1925

The deaths of William Jennings Bryan and Robert LaFollette had left voids in their respective political parties. Three-time Democratic presidential nominee Bryan had been replaced as his party's standard bearer, but still wielded considerable influence; badly divided Democrats had named his brother their vice presidential candidate in 1924 to secure his support for the ticket.

"Which Will Capture Democracy" by John T. McCutcheon in Chicago Tribune, Aug. 3, 1925

The major factions in the Democratic Party were Bryan's western populists and the more conservative Wall Street and Tammany Hall New Yorkers. I find it telling that McCutcheon overlooks Southerners in this cartoon.

McCutcheon's liberal and conservative labels here did not quite mean the same values that they do today. The western liberals were agrarian, nationalist, and open to the support of the Ku Klux Klan. The conservative wing of the party supported Wall Street interests, favored laissez-faire capitalism and the gold standard. Support of and opposition to Prohibition, international agreements, immigration, and tariffs cut across both wings of the party.

"The Wisconsin Wild Waves" by Clifford Berryman in Washington [DC] Evening Star, Aug. 19, 1925

Meanwhile, Wisconsin scheduled a special election to fill Fighting Bob LaFollette's seat in the U.S. Senate. His 30-year-old son Robert LaFollette, Jr., was heavily favored over his Republican rivals in the September 15 primary. (The leading Democratic candidate failed to get enough votes in the primary to qualify for the general election two weeks later and was forced to run as an Independent.)

"Help Aplenty" by Bill Sykes in Philadelphia Public Ledger, ca. Aug. 21, 1925

Elsewhere, the Progressive movement was hard-pressed to find a new leader. The Iowa Republican Party joined with the state's Democrats to challenge Progressive Republican Senator Smith W. Brookhart's narrow 1924 election victory over Daniel Steck; the Senate Committee on Elections and Privileges would ultimately side with Steck, and the full Senate would then vote to unseat Brookhart.

"I'll Never Quit You Entirely" by Clifford Berryman in Washington [DC] Evening Star, Aug. 18, 1925

Another potential leader of the Progressive Party was Senator George Norris, a very independent-minded Republican from Nebraska. But he quashed speculation that he could succeed LaFollette as a leader of any Third Party, vowing to remain a Republican — which didn't stop him from endorsing the Democratic Party presidential nominees in 1928 and 1932. 

Giving the lie to Berryman's cartoon, Norris did switch to the Democratic Party in 1934 and won re-election to the Senate one more time. Running six years later as an Independent, he came in second to the Republican candidate.

By the way, Norris left two lasting legacies in state and national politics. As a state legislator, he successfully championed changing Nebraska's legislature from bicameral to unicameral (the only such legislature in the country). As Senator, he wrote the 20th Amendment to the Constitution, which moved the presidential inauguration date up from March 4 to January 20.

"It Pays to Stay on a Main Traveled Road" by Ed LeCocq in Des Moines Register, Aug. 5, 1925

The Progressive Party also lost vital support as the American Federation of Labor (AFL) announced that it would thenceforth devote its political capital to wooing the two established political parties. Under Samuel Gompers, the AFL had purged socialists and communists from local union leadership positions, and would now distance itself from the Progressive Party — Bill Sykes, above, was following the major party line by labeling progressivism "radicalism" — as well.

"Thou, Too, Brutus" by Jesse Cargill for King Features Syndicate, ca. Aug. 6, 1925

With no national leader in Washington and rejected by its most viable source of support, the Progressive Party could not survive. That left Americans with the same two political parties they had to choose from since the Civil War.

"Rehearsing for the Next Big Show" by Dorman H. Smith for Newspaper Enterprise Assn., ca. Aug. 18, 1925

There But For The Grace

The church from which I retired last year and the pastor with whom I served there have made national news — again — this past week. You can read coverage by the New York Times, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Kenosha News (subscriptions required) or Chicago Sun-Times. Or continue below for my own two cents worth.

New York Times, page 19A, August 20, 2025

I had taken the job as Grace Lutheran Church's parish secretary in 2017 against the advice of a former employee, who warned me of a toxic environment there. Grace Lutheran was founded in 1901 when English-speaking Lutheran Churches were somewhat of a novelty, located in what was once the city's fashionable uptown, but now in what is euphemistically described as "a changing neighborhood."

Your humble scribe answering the door to reporters after a 5-year-old child had been fatally shot in the house next door to the church

In its heyday, as with most mainline Christian churches the post-World War II baby boom era, it had hundreds of members on the rolls, including several faculty and administrators of Lutheran-founded Carthage College. There is a tension between folks with advanced degrees and people whose forebears are memorialized in the stained glass windows.

The following anecdote has nothing to do with this window.

I once came across a decades-old, five-page, hand-written letter to Grace's then pastor by the daughter of a founding family arguing strongly against the church's decision back then to participate in the INNS program, opening its doors as a homeless shelter one night per week. Her parents, she wrote, would be horrified to see their church abused in such a manner; the role of her church was to praise God, not to feed and house the poor.

If I know anything about Lutheran pastors of the 1990's, her pastor could hardly wait to preach on Matthew 25:41-46. And the lady who wrote that letter had probably left to join a nearby Wisconsin Synod or Missouri Synod congregation more in line with her idea of Christianity.

By the 2010's, Grace was an aging congregation, but one that wanted to be socially relevant, both to live the Gospel and also to attract younger members (while still clinging to century-old hymns every Sunday — a new music team switched to contemporary music in 2023). So they issued a call to a young firebrand pastor out of California, passionate about environmental issues and social justice.

They got more than they bargained for.

Rev. Barker speaking at a WisPIRG rally in front of Grace Lutheran Church

When I came along, the congregation was getting along financially thanks to a dozen or so of its wealthier members and outside grants to benefit its free diaper programs and its housing of a free breakfast and food bank service (the homeless shelter having moved out to its own permanent location years earlier). Then came COVID-19; as with many other mainline congregations, when the doors re-opened for in-person worship months later, attendance was way down.

In the middle of all that came the police shooting of Jacob Blake during a domestic disturbance call. Grace Lutheran Church was caught between the centers of riots, looting, and fires that followed. (See my post here.) The building was undamaged, but the inside reeked of smoke when I came to work the following Tuesday.

Rev. Jonathan Barker was on vacation at the time, but returned home to help lead Black Lives Matter protests (and, behind the scenes, to house water and first aid materials for protesters while the National Guard enforced a curfew). When the Greater Milwaukee Synod and churchwide office wanted to rally in support of the community, the front lawn of Grace Lutheran Church was its choice of venue.

Unbeknownst to nearly everyone at the rally, Grace had been recommended to the staff of Democratic presidential nominee Joseph R. Biden as the location for a listening session between the candidate and select representatives of the community the very next day. (See my account here.) First United Methodist was even closer to the rioting, but for whatever reason, Biden's people opted for Grace, and Pastor Barker was happy to oblige.

It was never intended to be a campaign event, but Pastor Barker's role in bringing Biden to Grace and his vocal advocacy of Black Lives Matter protesters drove away some church members, including some vital congregational leaders. Most Kenoshans did not appreciate their town being trashed and burned so that protesters could make a point about police violence.

Pastor Barker nevertheless devoted a lot of time to being a protester. He held weekly protests at one of Kenosha's busy intersections calling on Wisconsin's Republican Senator Ron Johnson to vote for President Biden's Green New Deal bill — a lost cause, since Johnson has always been firmly committed to despoiling the environment, slashing social services, and excusing the rich and powerful from paying their fair share to keep government running.

When the Republicans held their national convention in Milwaukee, Pastor Barker superglued his shoes (while wearing them) to the entrance of the convention's parking garage. He also tried disrupting a Trump campaign event, getting forcibly removed while Trump made fun of him.

I have to note that this was all on Pastor Barker's personal time, despite his choice of collar. Grace could not afford a full-time pastor, so he was only on the clock Saturdays through Tuesdays (plus Christmas Eve). Naturally, however, people expect their pastor to be available 24/7, regardless what they're paying him or her. Especially those members who spent a lifetime serving pot luck dinners and funeral luncheons, singing in the choir, volunteering at Vacation Bible School, or just putting $5.00 in the offering plate every week.

Grace is a congregation in crisis. Since my retirement, one member of the already short-handed church council quit after other members of the council had the leaders of the free breakfast and food pantry programs forcibly removed by police (the matter is the subject of continuing litigation; Grace tried and failed to keep the programs going on its own). Another council member quit the church over Pastor Barker's political activity. Yet another council member died suddenly.

With all this going on, Pastor Barker decided to respond to a new IRS ruling, allowing clergy to endorse political candidates from the pulpit without endangering their 401(c) charitable entity status, by announcing to the New York Times that he planned to endorse Democratic Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez for President in his August 17 sermon.

Greater Milwaukee Synod Bishop Paul Erickson found out about Pastor Barker's plan when the Times contacted him for comment. The churchwide assembly of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) had just ratified an official "social statement" opposing political endorsements from the pulpit, so Bishop Erickson warned Pastor Barker that his sermon was contrary to that social statement and would likely result in the ELCA revoking Grace Lutheran Church's coverage under the national church's group tax exempt status.

Rather than change his sermon, Barker posted a terse video message to the congregation, resigning as Grace's pastor and from the ELCA clergy roster. He delivered his sermon at some venue festooned with papel picado, and promises to continue preaching on his personal YouTube channel.

As for Grace Lutheran, Bishop Erickson was there this past Sunday, and issued a pastoral letter to the synod:

I also ask for your prayers for Grace Lutheran Church. I was present with them on Sunday, preaching and meeting with them as they consider whether they have a viable future. Many of you are aware of the recent challenges and controversies surrounding the congregation and their relationship with the former Grace Welcome Center. Please know that I have been and will continue to walk with the congregation and others in Kenosha and the surrounding communities as we work to discern God’s will for the future of ministry in that neighborhood.

What remains of the council has been disbanded, and my successor as office secretary has quit effective Monday. The synod office in Milwaukee will take over management of the church. Pastor Sheila Rawn, already planning to serve as interim pastor at Grace during what was to be Pastor Barker's upcoming family leave, has agreed to begin her service there right away. By ELCA practice, she would not be considered for a permanent position there, if in fact the congregation somehow becomes viable again.

I grieve with, and pray for, my sisters and brothers at Grace. I cannot offer much hope that all will turn out well in the end; but what hope there is will only come about after finding new paths through that old building. God's place is with the "changing neighborhoods" in which Grace stands, its people living up to the message of Matthew 25:35-40 as best they can.

Q Toon: Sic Transit Veritas

I figured it was time to put out a back-to-school cartoon this week.

With the new semester, the ham-fisted drive to impose the Absolutely Corrupt Trump Regime's fascist agenda on academia will certainly resume. Some of our most respected universities, fearful of losing government research grants and tuition assistance, have already bent the knee to the Mar-a-Lago Mussolini, whose demands will only increase and get worse.

Has your board or regents shuttered your Diversity, Equity, and Inclusiveness office? Good. Now scuttle your environmental studies program, drop your epidemiology research, and cancel your unAmerican foreign language courses. Clear your history and literature curricula with the Ministry of Truth Social, and while you're at it, His Excellency Donald The First Of His Name would appreciate an honorary degree. One or two of those Distinguished Chair Things in his name would be nice, too. Gilded, naturally.

I suspect, however, that college students being young and idealistic will not knuckle under to Trump's brand of authoritarianism as readily as their elders. Last year's protests against genocide of Palestinians are likely to resume — or perhaps the spark will be ICE abduction of the cafeteria ladies, or the arrest of a tenured professor who had the temerity to suggest that slavery was racist, or a transgender athlete being whisked off to reeducation camp.

My fear is that sooner or later, as red-state National Guard troops are called in to restore rightthink and order, some campus will witness a repeat of Kent State.

I'm referring, my matriculating friends, not to the university, but to a tragedy your professors may be too young to remember. Look it up before your library and the internet get expurgated: it can happen here.

This Week's Sneak MacPeek

I mentioned last week that my better half and I were going to see a production of Macbeth. Here's a picture of us in the lobby before the play:

A couple staffers at the theater commended me on my plaid tie for The Scottish Play. My choice was deliberate, although the tie has this one damn spot that I just can't get out.

I can now report that it was a rather unusual reimagining of the Shakespeare play. (SPOILERS AHEAD!)

Graham Abbey as Banquo, Tom McCamus as Macbeth, Lucy Peacock as Lady Macbeth. Photo: David Hou

The company kept the bard's original text (Hecate, Lady MacDuff, and her son, however, are missing from this production), but updated the setting from medieval Scotland to a 1980's biker gang. The three witches are what were called in those days transvestites, and Macbeth's castle is a seedy motel. And yes, the actors do drive motorcycles on stage.

The production employs technical wizardry to appear and vanish witches, ghosts, the dagger Macbeth sees before him, and Birnam Wood on the move. A fiendishly clever scene change between Banquo meeting his end at a gas station (I warned you there would be spoilers!) and Macbeth hosting a cookout earned applause from the audience we were in.

Tom McCamus and Lucy Peacock portrayed Macbeth and his Lady beautifully, although I picture Macbeth as someone young enough to realistically expect siring a son to succeed him someday. Why else would he be distressed by the witches' prediction that his buddy Banquo's offspring would be kings down the road?

(The failure of Banquo's young teenage son to play any part in the drama after Banquo is killed is Shakespeare's fault. Aside from there being no King Fleance at the end, the witches bat 1000 in the prediction biz.)

Riffing on World Affairs

Today's Graphical History Tour takes a quick check-up on the colonial world:

"Getting Down to Cases" by Wm. A. Rogers in Washington [DC] Post, August 1, 1925

When last we checked on international affairs, France had sent its military to help Spain quell a revolt in Morocco. Abd El Krim's Moroccan guerillas had stymied the Spanish army since 1921 in the mountains of Rif, effectively establishing the independent state of Rif and confining the Spanish to scattered fortified positions along the coast.

"And Still He Gets Away" by Wm. Hanny in Philadelphia Inquirer, August 3, 1925

With the entry of France into the Rif War, the European nations launched all-out war to extinguish the independent Berber nation. 

"Up Against It" by Wm. Hanny in Philadelphia Inquirer, August 22, 1925

Aside from being satisfied to stay removed from the conflict, U.S. cartoonists were divided in their sympathies. The U.S. had allied with France in the Great War, but France's punitive demands against Germany were widely seen as an impediment to a lasting peace; American impatience for France to repay wartime loans from the U.S. was mounting.

"The Iron Dove of Peace" by Douglas Rodger in San Francisco Bulletin, August 10, 1925

As for American attitudes toward Spain, memories of the Spanish-American War were fading — and the U.S. had emerged victorious anyway, so why hold a grudge? Still, it might be telling that, with no justification whatsoever, we blamed the country for the so-called Spanish flu.

"Take Care" by Winsor McCay, ca. August 28, 1925

On the other hand, Americans viewed Europe as a seat of civilization and Africa as part of a backward, benighted world requiring guidance and oversight by White People.

"One of Those English Jokes" by Tom Foley in Minneapolis Star, August 5, 1925

Meanwhile, did we mention war debts?

"Going Up" by Orville Williams for Star Company, ca. Aug. 6, 1925

In part due to protectionist tariffs and trade barriers in vogue between the World Wars, the U.S. demand for rubber to keep everybody's cars on the road had run up against the British Empire trade policy.

"Rubber-r-r" by Dorman H. Smith for Newspaper Enterprise Assn., ca. August 17, 1925

As long as we have the Philippines essentially as a U.S. colony, some Americans argued, why not promote rubber production there?

It has been a while since we have visited the archipelago taken by the U.S. along with Cuba and Puerto Rico as spoils of the Spanish-American War over a quarter century earlier. The U.S. occupation quashed initial independence movements, promising Filipino self-determination someday. Someday just got pushed a little further down the road.

In spite of a tide of isolationism, the U.S. had come to appreciate close ties with its colonial territories.

"Let's Do It Thoroughly" by Orville P. Williams for Star Company, ca. July 1, 1925

Just not too close.